Slavery, as a social institution, is defined by law and custom as the most absolute involuntary form of human servitude. The definitive characteristics of slaves are as follows:

1. their labor or services are obtained through force;
2. their physical beings are regarded as the property of another person,
3. their owner; and
4. they are entirely subject to their owner's will.

The practice of slavery dates to prehistoric times, although its institutionalization probably first occurred in early historical times, when agricultural advances made possible more highly organized societies.

Slaves were needed for various specialized functions in these societies and were obtained either through raids or conquests of other peoples or within the society itself, when some people sold themselves or their family members to pay debts or were enslaved as punishment for crimes.

Slavery BC

Slavery was an accepted feature, often essential to the economy and society, of all ancient civilizations. The ancient Mesopotamian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations employed slaves, either domestically in homes and shops or in gangs for large-scale construction or agriculture. The ancient Egyptians used slaves on a mass scale to build the royal palaces and monuments. The ancient Hebrews also used slaves, but they were required by religious law to free slaves of their own nationality at certain fixed times.

In the more advanced civilizations of pre-Columbian America, for example, those of the Aztec, Inca, and Maya, slave labor was also used on a large scale in both agriculture and warfare.

In the Homeric epics, slavery is the ordinary destiny of prisoners of war. The later Greek philosophers did not consider the condition of slavery as morally objectionable, although Aristotle went so far as to suggest that faithful slaves might be freed in reward for loyal service. With few exceptions, slaves in ancient Greece were humanely treated.

However, the Helots of Sparta, descendants of an earlier, conquered race of inhabitants who were forced to labor on large estates and to fight with the Spartan armies, were severely treated, mainly because they far outnumbered their dependent masters.

More typically, slaves were employed in domestic service, in trades, as laborers on country estates, and as seamen and oarsmen. Where they were employed in private domestic service, it was not uncommon to find them on friendly terms with their masters.

In the Roman Empire, the primary way of acquiring slaves was through war; tens of thousands of captured prisoners of war were brought to Rome as slaves. Roman slavery differed in several important aspects from that of ancient Greece. Roman masters had more power over their slaves, including, by law, the power of life and death. Slavery was also far more necessary to the economy and social system of Rome, especially during the empire, than it had been in Greece.

Wealthy Romans, often maintaining large city and country homes, depended on numerous slaves for the efficient operation of these households. Imperial conquests and expansion eventually strained the native Roman workforce, so great numbers of foreign slaves had to be imported to fill agricultural labor needs.

Philosophically, the Romans had no tradition that made it acceptable for free Roman citizens to take orders from anyone except their fathers or their military leaders. This applied to farms, urban workshops or government bureaucracies. Cicero stated that working every day to earn a living was beneath the dignity of a citizen and that working with one’s hands was a “dirty business.”

In the Roman Empire slaves on the one hand were regarded in much legislation as objects, yet on the other hand they were regularly treated as well as free human beings and were normally granted Roman citizenship when set free, as happened regularly. Enslavement under Roman law is best understood as a process rather than a permanent condition. Interestingly, when a person sold themselves into slavery, they kept the money of the sale which was often the beginning of personal funds that would later be used to purchase freedom.

Differences with Post-Columbian America

Slavery in the 1st century was quite different than that of Post-Columbian America. Some differences included:

1. Racial factors played no role.
2. Education was greatly encouraged (some slaves were better educated than their owners).
3. Many slaves carried out sensitive and highly responsible social functions.
4. Slaves could own property (including other slaves).
5. Their religious and cultural traditions were the same as those of the freeborn.
6. No laws prohibited the public assembly of slaves.
7. Perhaps the greatest difference was that the majority of urban and domestic slaves were emancipated by the age of 30.
8. In addition, those in slavery were not generally at the bottom of the social and economic pyramid. At the bottom were free and impoverished persons who had to look for work each day without any certainty of finding it.
9. Slaves were used for an enormous variety of functions in enormously different circumstances such as “doctors, teachers, writers, accountants, agents, bailiffs, overseers, secretaries and sea captains.” They were also used as agricultural workers.

Middle Ages

The introduction of Christianity, its adoption as the official religion of the Roman Empire, and its subsequent spread over Europe and parts of the Middle East during the Middle Ages tended to improve the conditions but did not eliminate the practice of slavery.

After the fall of Rome, during the barbarian invasions that occurred at various times between the 5th and 10th centuries, the ancient institution of slavery was transformed into the generally less binding system known as serfdom. Islam, established in the 7th century, recognized the institution of slavery from the beginning. The Prophet Muhammad urged his followers to use slaves kindly, however, and on the whole slaves owned by Muslims were comparatively well treated. Most were employed as domestic servants.

Sources:

• Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
• Anchor Bible Dictionary